I recently came across a Tikkun Magazine article featuring a
former slave of Mauritania, Mr. Moctar Teyeb, which appeared under the title of
“A Call to Freedom,” published in 2000. I was at the time researching the
extent of the participation of Berbers to the institution of African slavery,
slave castes of the Western Sahara, Mauritania and the Twareg groups, and the
infamous Saharan Slave Trade of North Africa. Let me say from the start that my
task was to elucidate the topic of slavery in North Africa, and not that of
exculpating or inculpating any particular group.
Mr. Moctar Teyeb, the informer for that Tikkun Magazine
article, has first hand knowledge of a present-day problem in his native
country of Mauritania. However, he may not have had access to some of the
extensive historical material available on the matter which could allow him to
modify some of the statements he makes in his appraisal of the historical
context of slavery in Africa in general and the Slave Trade more particularly.
Apparently, neither did Tikkun, the publisher of his article. Otherwise, I am
sure the Editors would have provided some notes for the benefit of the readers
of Tikkun, as to the perhaps little known but serious participation of North
African Jews to the traffic of slaves in Africa, not to speak of the
necessary distinction between Arabs and
Berbers omitted in this article, since numerous Berbers were converted to
Judaism long before Islam entered their lands, and many “pagan” Berbers were
themselves enslaved by Arab invaders.
The writer immediately stated: “Eight centuries ago, my
ancestors lived peacefully in their homeland in Africa. Then came the
Arab-Berbers raids.” As we enter the 21st century, this sentence
places the origin of enslavement practices of Mauritania at the 12th
century AD. Mr. Teyeb purposefully
ignored the preceding centuries of enslavement practices in Africa by Black
Africans in sub-Sahara countries, and their involvement in the Slave Trade
after the arrival of Arabs and Islam. Slavery existed prior the arrival of the
Arabs in Africa in the 7th century, as an African institution. His
further assertion that “as a result of those caravans, slavery began as an
accepted institution in the region in which I was born," needs to be
scrutinized and differentiated.
It is known that the caste system existing in that area is
not so much directly related to the caravan trade as it is to the importation
on an ideology – Islam – which upheld the superiority of believers over
non-believers, and created the subsequent views that pagans of Africa could be
enslaved with impunity. I would like to recapitulate briefly some of the
important facts of this historical development.
The first people enslaved in North Africa were the
indigenous Berbers (Imazighen, meaning “Free People”) who were enslaved by the
tens of thousands by colonizing Phoenicians to run their plantations and man
the oars of their powerful fleet of ships.
The Romans had a somewhat different relation to these indigenous people
of Africa, while the only “black”
slaves Rome might have known were not from sub-Saharan countries, but from
Upper Egypt, the country known as Nubia. The records show that they were
relatively few since Romans relied more originally on war captives from
European campaigns, then on Jewish revolts and subsequently on slave offspring
from their existing slave population. By the time they arrived in North Africa,
they had enough of a supply among their slave population to meet their needs,
with the majority of their slaves coming from that group, criminals and a
plentiful number of orphans.
The Arabs began to invade and defeat Egypt, Libya and the
Maghreb regions of North Africa from 644 AD and afterwards in successive waves
of invasion until the 11th century.
Who were the defeated populations? The various groups of indigenous
Berbers. The first policy of Arabs, as clearly established by historical
documentation, was to tax the inhabitants of these regions with such heavy war
taxes that the sale of Berber women and children was included in their treaties
with Berber groups as a means to come up with the tax. The first treaties with
Libyan groups stipulated 360 women and children annually from each conquered
village or group. This practice was continued throughout the invasion of North
Africa, which occurred westward all the way to the Atlantic Coast, where the
enslavement of women and children remained a substantial part of the booty
collected by Arab conquerors and their forces.
One must remember that the Arab invaders brandished the
Koran, which explicitly defined that the enslavement of non-believers was
permissible. The first idea of enslavement on the part of Arabs was sanctioned
by their religious ideology: only non-believers (all pagans) could be sold in
slavery. The Koran pretends to a certain noble humanity by saying that once
they adopt the faith of their masters and conquerors, that of Islam, the
vanquished can be “redeemed” from their slave status. Mr. Moctar Teyeb
underlines, and rightly so, that both masters and slaves of Mauritania are of
the Islamic faith. I would add, it is because they are all believers in the
same book which upholds that slavery is permissible that, today, the
institution is widespread and even the Islamic courts favor it. The first
sanction of slavery came from Allah. Ideology and divine authority are the
pillars on which millions of human beings have been “justifiably” enslaved.
Soon, the steady supply of Berber women and children from
Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco, collected for the needs of the wealthy
emirs by then settled in Egypt, as well as those of Arabia, became inadequate,
and even Islamicized Berbers became the target of Arab slavers. History reveals
the number of slaves extracted by certain leaders of the conquest and
occupation of North Africa. Among them, I have retained the documented figures
of 315,000 for one and 400,000.00 for another of those invading lords of
Arabia. This took place in North Africa between the seventh and ninth
centuries, with numerous rebellions of Berber groups during those centuries. Up
till the crucial expedition of 734 AD, the Sahara and western sub-Saharan
countries were not part of the slave-oriented needs of Arab consumers. The Arab
invaders of North Africa, keen on locating where the gold of the Berbers came
from, organized an expedition to the Souss and south of Morocco to find the
location of gold traded among Berbers. This expedition was fateful in that it
created what would become the western routes of the infamous Trans-Saharan
Slave Trade.
A close examination of Arab texts leads to the inevitable
conclusion affirmed by scholars that this Trans-Saharan Slave Trade of Black
Africans started indeed in the eighth century, with this 734 D expedition. The
second powerful motive, which enters history, is then greed, and a huge
commercial and financial enterprise was mounted. Berber tribes who controlled
key oasis settlements of the Sahara soon learned that they could enrich themselves
by this trade, and began to impose heavy taxation on any traffic through their
lands, while also furnishing guides, scouts, supplies, and camels at a price.
The security provided by nomadic warriors of the desert also was costly to the
financiers of the slave Trade, as the Twareg Tribes leased their policing
forces at high prices and also began to profit by this trade. Let us examine,
however, who actually financed, organized and directed this immensely
profitable trade.
Caravans were organized and financed by Turkish bankers,
Arabs, and Jewish merchants of the North. Many entrepreneurs of foreign
countries, living in littoral urban settings of Cyraneica at Tripoli and the
slave trade center of Benghazi, and in thriving port communities of Morocco, were
the financial backers and final profiteers of the Slave Trade during the
flourishing era of the trade. In 1591, a Moroccan expedition destroys the
Kingdom of Songhai, and in the 16th and 17th centuries,
the routes of the central Sahara are dominated by Twareg (Berber) tribes. In the 17th and 18th
centuries European traders dominate the Slave Trade. After the death (1900) of
two Arab slave hunters and their “rezzous” on horseback, Rabah and Samori, a
clear decline of the Trans-Sarahan traffic occurs. Great Britain, the largest
slave trading state enacts Anti-Slavery laws in 1837, and France follows in
1848. The centuries old practices that have created a specific type of economy
in the desert oases and the Sahara have sustained a deep blow from colonization,
and the character and social structures of the entire Sahara desert population
are destroyed. Slavery practices and serfdom (two categories of Saharan
societies) upon which castes of warriors and holy men of Berber ancestry built
wealth and power become obsolete. Mauritania, on the occidental side of the
Sahara, is a new post-colonial nation where, despite the existence of rich iron
mines which makes it valuable to the Western corporations and states exploiting
the various underground resources of Africa, traditional hierarchical societies
persist in the essentially barren environment of the desert.
For centuries, huge caravans were needed to transport the
goods and the slaves. To equip them, load them with supplies, and provide a
safe journey through dangerous territories traversed by numerous groups of
nomadic tribes, Arabs and Berbers, the moguls of the Slave Trade had to put up
enormous amounts of cash up front. Seed money was provided by Turkish and
Jewish bankers and merchants before the arrival of European capital. The cost
of providing escorts of some 300 to 400 mounted Twaregs to protect them along
the way made it also a very expensive proposition. These commercial enterprises
developed not only well run departure and arrival centers with slave depots,
but intermediary secure caravan stops. In these centers, they maintained
relatives, non-Berber and non-black personnel, to oversee the traffic in North
Africa, in sub-Saharan regions, and in the desert of the Sahara. Timbuktu was a
central crossroad to four different routes toward Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia,
but there were other centers.
Such was the enormous enterprise of the well-known Mardoche
Brothers, five Jewish brothers, native of Akka, descendants of Spanish Jews.
Their letters outline the procedures, the structure of their vast organization
(with brothers at key points), the cost of caravans and the mode of transport
and security needed for their dangerous travel though the desert. . From these
numerous letters, we have an ample record of the Black African Slave Trade from
1859 to 1879. The Jewish Mardoche
brothers held the monopoly of this Trade in the Moroccan and Algerian routes,
(Timbuktu/Tindouf/Djisilmassa) but they had their counterpart in the Tunisian
and Libyan routes. Several top executives on record were merchants of Tripoli,
Jewish for the most part, such as the one who took up the name of Hassan but
was actually an Italian Jew of the large Jewish community of Livorno, or Arabs
like a certain Hadj Mohammed Barbari. Market competition was high, and the
better organized relied on family members located at strategic points, such as
the Mardoche Brothers Enterprises.
In addition, the record shows that the Kehath family from
southern Morocco settled in Timbuktu, converting to Islam in 1492. The Cohen
family descending from the Moroccan Jewish trader al Hajj Abd-el-Salaam al
Kuhin is recorded in Timbuktu in the 18th century, and in the 19th
century, the Abana family. Furthermore, Rabbi Mordachai Abi Serour came from
Morocco in 1860 to be a trader in Timbuktu.
A number of ancient manuscripts from Timbuktu reflect the
overseeing capacity of those Jewish traders as some of the accounting records
are annotated in Hebrew characters on their margins.
The market demands of Arabia and Egypt grew enormously. At
the top of its unceasing appetites for Black slaves were the women mostly used
for cooks and domestic need (Arabs continued to favor white slaves for sexual
pleasures, though black ones were not excluded), children and young castrated
males being second in demand. The casualties of castration performed by
sub-Saharan African barbers on young black men of Africa have been calculated
at up to 90%. It was only later that the military needs of the Sultans of
Morocco (Moulay Ismail who was an Emir of Egypt with a commander of troops in
Morocco was the creator of the first army) equally relied on that market to
form the well-known Sudanese ranks of their army, and subsequently that of the
Royal Black Guards of Morocco. While the consumers were the Arabian lords, the
bankers were primarily Turkish, and the mercantile top executives were Jews,
the Berber oasis dwellers were the middle management and the Berber Twareg
warriors were the police force. The participation of black Africans in the capture
and original sale transactions in sub-Saharan regions cannot be omitted from
the overall business scheme. Among the Berber tribes seriously involved in the
Trade were the Massufa, the Lamta, the Mazata, the Hawwara, and the Hafusa,
tribes that were all defined as “Ibadite “ Berbers.
Ideology was the primary factor in creating a class of
slaves in the Arabic world, and ideology preceded by far the enslavement of
Black Africans by Arabs, when it obtained a class of slaves from the Berber
Free Men of North Africa. The greed of Arab conquerors, backed by Turkish
financiers and mercantile Jews, was the secondary factor and initial motive for
the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade in general.
In Mauritania, Islamic ideology, and Arab conquest also
brought about the social structure mentioned (but not explained) by Moctar
Teyeb. He makes clear that both masters and slaves are Muslim. He also
unfortunately includes the Harratin as fellow slaves, which they are not. The
Harratin have mysterious origins. They are more closely related, genetically,
to the Berbers of North Africa than to Black Africans, and yet they are a
black-skinned population. Some scholars have seen in them the direct
descendants of the original prehistoric inhabitants of the Sahara. They work in
the oases of the desert as serfs of the Twaregs, and consider themselves
closely allied to them, forming a class category, which is not equated by Arabs
or Twaregs with that of slaves. Indeed the Arabic word for slave is “Abd,” a
word not applied to Harratin people. At the time Moulay Ismail gathered his
elite black troops (14th century,) his general El Bakhri conscripted
some Harratin, to the outcry of the Scholars of Fez and of the general
population of Morocco, creating a great stir in the country, as Harratin were
considered to be “Free Men”, or “Imazighen” not subject to a conscription of
black slaves.
The Arabs inculcated
to the vassal Berber tribes paying war tribute to them that Arab, and white was
best (numerous Berber tribes were of
darker color from previous mixing of populations in the desert): therefore,
genealogies were fabricated to give entire groups of Islamic Berbers Arab
ancestry. Thus, Mauritania has a caste of “white” Beydanes. The Hassaya
speakers of Mauritania (about one million) call their territory “trab-l-bidan”
(the land of the white man) and themselves “Beidanes” (“white men.”) They are the “Moors” or descendants of Sanhaja Berbers converted to Islam
about 1,000 years ago and of Arab invaders who came several centuries later.
Their area of dominion is opposed to the Savannah regions of the south, peopled
by the black people of the grasslands (“Toucouleurs” of Peul language) whom
they call “Abd,” meaning slave in Arabic.
Arab warrior classes and the vassal religious Berber groups with
fictitious Arab lineage, are opposed to that of “black” African ancestry,
originally pagan, and often seen as reverting to pagan ways in spite of being
converted. This remarkable formation of structural classes and the construction
of a caste system based on Arab “white” lineage took over the whole area,
distorting the actual genetic and ethnic origins of certain groups of the
desert. The persistent supremacist ideology of the Arabs prevailed over common
sense. To have access to wealth and power, entire groups of Berbers claimed
ancestry in Yemen or from the lineage of the Prophet (i.e., the Reguibat of the
Western Sahara), in order to gain status and recognition.
The catastrophic message of the Koran (enslave the
non-believers you conquer in the name of Islam) and the use of this message
made by Islamic followers, in their assertion that Arab means white and
superior to African and black, resulted in the present-day situation in the
entire Maghreb. There are over thirty million Berbers and a good number of
them, some in the Western Sahara and Mauritania, who identify with Arabs,
linguistically, religiously, and even through manufactured genealogies.
While
the view of Moctar Teyeb is understandably a valuable message, as a personal
testimony of a man born to slavery under local and temporal social constructs
based on a specific type of ideology, his report that “Arabo-Berbers” were the
cause of historical events which enslaved his people needs to be read in the
light of the ample documentation which exists on the institution of slavery in
Africa, and the nature of the Trans-Sahara Slave Trade. The Berbers of North
Africa and the Berber Twareg groups of the Sahara desert – all Imazighen –
succumbed to the tyranny of Arab conquest, rule, and ideology, some of them to
the point of creating legends and myths which give them, the conquered, the
same authority and superiority as their assailants and conquerors. While some have arabicized themselves
thoroughly, in order to escape the slave status, others continue to struggle
against the supremacist views of Arabs.
Finally, as regards the publication and
transmittal of Moctar Teyeb’s somewhat incomplete message to the readers of
Tikkun, a reminder about the large contribution of North African Jewish merchants
to the establishment and maintenance of a Trans-Saharan Slave Trade through the
centuries, must be noted. If, as different sentiments emerged in the last
century toward the formerly widespread institution of slavery which sustained a
specific type of economy throughout entire Black kingdoms and the Sahara
desert, Africa joins the capitalist global economy and its democratic basis,
and reparation is demanded for the thinking of an earlier age, then, reparation
from the Jews as well as the Berbers must also be added to that of the Arabs,
and from all Islamic groups of Black Africa who participated in such an abusive
commerce of human lives. The latter, Arabs and Islamic teachers, are those who
most bear the burden of responsibility for a specific mode of thinking, encoded
in a religion they spread throughout the African continent, and perpetuated in
a behavior originally dictated by an exclusive God obviously alien to African
spirituality.
A Brief Chronology:
5,000
BC - Pastoral economy of the Sahara – Evidence of mixed populations
co-existing. The Haratin black-skinned population is considered to be the
direct descendants of some of the negroid paleolithic groups of this area,
genetically and linguistically different from Black Africans of the sub-Sahara
regions. The Haratin are not considered to be a slave category (Arabic “Abd”),
but Free Men of dark skin. They are serfs of the Twaregs and partake of their
culture. In recent history, some have become wealthy owners of property in
oases while Twareg warriors, once the uncontested Lords of the desert, but no
longer able to maintain traditional
modes of subsistence practically annihilated by French and British
colonization, have fared poorly.
(Note:
The Blue Men of Mauritania and Western Sahara are the descendants of the
last Arab invaders of the 15th
century, proud of their pure Arab ethnicity, by comparison with the mixed one
of vassal Berbers and that of the black slaves.)
7th
– 8th centuries – Era of Arab invasions, propagation of Islam and
domination of Maghreb by waves of Arab invaders. Indigenous Berber groups are decimated, enslaved, islamicized and
arabicized.
9th
century – Creation of caravan routes through the Sahara, with trails of
occidental Sudan (Arabic term for “Land of the Black People”) to Morocco
dominated by converted Berber groups in the oases, and caravan stops.
11th
century – Dynasty of Saharan Berber Almohavids in the Maghreb.
12th
century – Almohad, Berber dynasty succeeds to Almohavids in the Maghreb.
14th
–15th centuries – Timbuktu is the central Sahara slave depot.
1591
– A Moroccan expedition is led to the land of the blacks, to obtain gold, salt
and slaves and the Kingdom of Songhai is destroyed.
16th
– 17th centuries – The caravan routes and Trans-Saharan Slave Trade
flourishes and is dominated by the Twareg warriors, Blue Men (Occidental Sahara
warrior tribes) and Berber oases (religious brotherhoods, maraboutic rule.).
17th
– 18th centuries – The European Slave Trade takes over.
1837
and 1848 – British and French pass anti-slavery laws, and slave trade persists
in practice, with tacit approval of colonizers.
1894
– Senoussya (Muslim sect) exhort and back up Tuareg warriors to pillage the
sedentary villages of the Sahel, and shackle their prisoners who are sold in
the North for high prices.
1880-1910 – Decline of Trans-Saharan caravan
routes.
SOURCES FROM
ANTIQUITY
-
“Le Periple d’ Hannou,” is a text that
dates from the Fifth century before Christ, with a reference to the presence of
“blacks” in the Maghreb. (Andre Adam, Alger, 1972 – “Bibliographie de
Sociologie, Ethnologie et Geographie Humaine du Maroc, p
19.)
-
310 BC - “Asphodales” of Diadorus. The presence
of black Africans living in the center of present-day Tunisia is mentioned.
This presence is later evaluated as being attributable to a few slaves of
Carthagenian masters, of Nubian or Ethiopian origin, as relations between that
region and territories south of the Sahara
are not evident. (Citation page
8 in “Carthage,Rome et les Berberes, J.
A. Herbara, Ibadan University Press, 1980.)
- 420 AD - The Latin poet
Florus mentions in pejorative terms the import of slaves furnished by
Garamantes in Roman Africa, at Hadrumetum, nowadays region of the Suss in
Tunisia. The quote is as follows: “Faex
Garamantarum nostrum processit ad axem et piceo gaudet corpore verna niger.”
- Another Roman
Poet, Luxorius, also noted the import
into Roman Africa of female Garamantes slaves. See “Ut tibi non placeat
Pontica, sed Garamas.” (Luxorius,
43.)
ARABIC HISTORIANS,
GEOGRAPHERS AND ESSAYISTS
(primary sources in translation or secondary sources
furnished by documents of the 19th and 20th centuries.)
Quote:
“From
the region of Tagadda, West Africa, come excellent young slaves, eunuchs, and
saffron-dyed cloth.” Ibn Battuta, 1353.
-
Al Yaqubi, Persian
Geographer (died 889 AD) left us a list
of names of groups living in Eastern Libya at the end of the 9th
century in his work of “Kitab-al-Budan,”
translation, Leiden, 1892.
-
Tadeus Lewicki (cf.
Bibiliography) collected data from Arabic sources (geographers) of the 9th
and 10th centuries.
-
Chronicles of
Timbuktu : Ibn Harukal (10th century,) Ibn Battuta (14th) and Leo Africanus
(16th)
-
Chronicles of the
Maghreb: El Bakri (11th), Idrissi (12th) Yakub (13eme) : Ibn Khaldum , Al Omari
(14th.) and Al Maqrizi.
-
The most exact and
clearer text on the topic of the conquest of North Africa is viewed by scholars
as furnished by Ubayd Allah b. Salih b. Abd al Hakam au 13th
century. This text furnishes what we know of the raids of Uqbi Ibn Nafi.
-
The recounting of the
sale of Amazigh (Berber) women from North African tribes in rebellion, in
public auctions of the slave markets of Cairo , is given by Murray Gordon, page
30 of his work, “Slavery in the Arab
World.” ( cf. Bibliography.)
-
The legal opinion of
Ahmed Baba of Timbuktu dates from 1023. It is present in several documents of
Morocco. Two manuscripts exist, one in Paris, the other in Rabat, Morocco.
-
Khalil Ibn Islaq
(Tome I, page 216) has given us ample information on the type of “humiliation” which was imposed upon the
indigenous peoples of North Africa.
-
Seven Arabic texts
mention the sale of Berber women and children by North African groups, in order
to meet the war taxes imposed by the Arabic conquerors. Six of those texts were written after the 10th
century. (See Arabic sources above.)
- Ample information on Jewish merchants who
are famed for their eunuch factories in Andulasia during the tenth century
emanate from several sources, the first source being that of Arabic Geographer
ibn Hawqal.
-
Ibn Al Khalib (14th
century) is the source of data on the Maqqari Jewish brothers, the Mardoche
family and its slavery monopoly.
-
Ibn Khaldun (14th
century) is the sole historian who has written of the devastation by the Hillalian
and Sulaymite tribes throughout Ifriqya. (His work rests on preceding Arabic
writers.)
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